Divination using the deceased was reportedly widespread among Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The Israelites likely adopted this practice from Persian sources and engaged in it extensively, prompting repeated biblical prohibitions (Leviticus 19:31; 20:6, 27; (Deuteronomy 18:11); 1 Samuel 28; (Isaiah 8:1)9).
Three categories of necromancers existed: the "ob," the "yidde'oni," and the "doresh el ha-metim" (questioner of the dead). The first two terms frequently appeared together in texts.
The term "ob" has been interpreted as either denoting a soothsaying spirit or a ghost of the deceased. The Septuagint typically rendered it as "ventriloquist," based on the vocal techniques employed by practitioners. Jewish tradition distinguished: "Ob is the python, who speaks from his armpits; yidde'oni is he who speaks with his mouth" (Sanh. vii. 7).
According to Talmudic sources, the yidde'oni employed a bone from the animal called "yaddua'" positioned in the mouth to produce speech through magical means. The ob possessor would stoop while speaking to create the illusion that spirits communicated through their joints and limbs.
While biblical texts omit specific descriptions of necromantic equipment, references to teraphim and related objects suggest tools were employed. Samuel's manifestation to the Endor witch as an old man covered with a mantle demonstrates how spirits assumed their earthly appearance.
A crucial distinction existed: the necromancer alone perceived the apparition's form, while questioners heard only the voice. This voice reportedly emerged from beneath the earth, producing characteristic whispering and muttering sounds (Isaiah 8:19; 29:4). Questioners prepared through fasting to achieve proper spiritual receptivity.
Necromancy's classification alongside idolatry and magic indicated foreign origins and religious transgression. The practice predominantly involved women (1 Samuel 28:7). Saul had previously expelled all practitioners before later consulting one himself. King Manasseh encouraged them alongside other idolatrous practices, while Isaiah provided explicit condemnations (Isaiah 8:19; 19:3; 29:4). Josiah destroyed these practitioners following discovery of the Law's book (2 Kings 23:24).
Post-biblical necromancers persisted despite legal prohibition and repeated Torah interdicts. Talmudic scholars termed magicians "those that dig up the dead" and "those who predict by means of bones of the dead." One Babylonian scholar dismissed osteomancy as "deceit and falsehood" (Ber. 59a).
Despite skepticism, the spirits' veracity remained generally accepted, referencing Samuel's successful evocation (1 Samuel 28; Shab. 152b). A consistent rule governed manifestation: when necromancers witnessed apparitions, questioners heard voices; when questioners saw forms, practitioners heard voices. Simultaneous perception remained impossible (Sanh. 65).
Rab (d. 247), Babylon's foremost teacher, reportedly performed cemetery rituals determining that ninety-nine of one hundred deaths resulted from the evil eye (B. M. 107b). Another teacher described necromancers burning incense to demons while questioning them (Karet 3b).
More benign necromantic approaches involved secretly listening to the dead's conversations (Ber. 59a). Individuals fasted and spent nights in cemeteries, expecting "spirits of uncleanness" to visit, revealing hidden knowledge or future events (Sanh. 65b; Hag. 3b).
Jewish tradition held that necromancy would receive divine punishment rather than human enforcement (Sanh. 65).