Rabbi Shmuel bar Naḥman tells us that all the prophets, in their visions, saw the rise and fall of kingdoms, particularly their impact on Israel. It all starts with a seemingly innocent verse from Genesis: "A river emerged from Eden to water the garden, and from there it parted and became four streams" (Genesis 2:10).
Rabbi Tanḥuma, or perhaps Rabbi Menaḥama in the name of Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi (tradition sometimes preserves multiple versions, which is fascinating in itself!), sees these four rivers as representing the four major empires that would dominate and, at times, oppress Israel. The Holy One, blessed be He, will ultimately give these nations a "cup of bewilderment" in the future. But let's break down what each river symbolizes.
First, there's the Pishon. This, we're told, represents Babylon. Why? Because the Hebrew word ufashu, meaning "spread," echoes the description of Babylonian horsemen spreading across the land in (Habakkuk 1:8). This river encircles the "entire land of Ḥavila," which is a veiled reference to the wicked Nebuchadnezzar, who besieged Jerusalem. The land of Israel, like a lover, meyaḥelet, "longs" for God, as we find in (Psalms 42:6), "Yearn [hoḥili] for God." And what about the gold found in this land? That, my friend, is the Torah itself, "more desirable than gold, than much fine gold" (Psalms 19:11). The Midrash (rabbinic interpretive commentary) goes even further, stating that "there is no Torah like the Torah of the Land of Israel, and there is no wisdom like the wisdom of the Land of Israel." Within this symbolic land, we also find bdellium and onyx, representing the breadth of Jewish learning: Bible, Mishna, Talmud, halakhot (Jewish law), and agadda (stories and teachings).
Next, we have the Giḥon, symbolizing Media. This empire produced the wicked Haman, of Purim fame, who, like a serpent, "beat the dough," a cruel image reflecting his merciless attacks on the Jewish people. This is linked to the verse "on your belly you shall go" (Genesis 3:14), reducing Israel to a lowly state. The Giḥon encircles "the entire land of Kush," corresponding to the vast reach of the Persian empire, "From India to Kush" (Esther 1:1).
The third river, the Ḥidekel, is Greece. The name itself suggests sharpness [ḥada] and swiftness [vekala], reflecting the harshness of their decrees against Israel. They even demanded, in their arrogance, that the Jews deny their connection to God, writing "Israel has no portion in the God of Israel" on the horn of an ox. Rav Huna adds that all the kingdoms can be called Assyria, as they enriched [me’ashrin] themselves at Israel's expense. Rabbi Yosei ben Rabbi Ḥanina offers a similar perspective, calling them all Egypt [Mitzrayim] because they would torment [metzeirim] Israel.
Finally, we arrive at the Perat, or Euphrates, which represents Edom, often associated with Rome. This kingdom "flourished [sheparat]" and multiplied, causing immense suffering to Israel and, in a sense, to God's own "son," (Exodus 4:22), and to God's house – the Temple in Jerusalem. The Midrash connects this to (Isaiah 63:3), "I have trodden a winepress alone," foreshadowing the ultimate downfall of Edom.
But the Midrash doesn't stop there. It goes on to explore how Abraham, Daniel, and Moses each saw these kingdoms and their impact on Israel. Abraham's vision in (Genesis 15:12), filled with "dread [eima], darkness, and great fear," is interpreted as representing Babylon, Media, and Greece respectively, with "fell" symbolizing the eventual fall of Edom. Daniel, in his night visions (Daniel 7:2-3), sees four beasts emerging from the sea, or perhaps from the forest, each representing a different kingdom. The lion with eagle's wings is Babylon, the bear is Media, the leopard is Greece, and the fourth beast, "fearsome, terrifying, and very powerful," is Edom.
Moses, too, perceived these empires, using the metaphor of non-kosher animals in (Leviticus 11:4-7). The camel represents Babylon, the hyrax is Media, the hare is Greece, and the pig is Edom. The image of the pig is particularly striking: "Just as the pig, when it lies, it displays its hooves and says: 'See that I am pure,' so the kingdom of Edom engages in self-aggrandizement, and extorts and robs, while creating the impression that it is preparing a judicial platform."
The Midrash emphasizes that while Babylon, Media, and Greece paid lip service to God, exalting figures like Daniel, Mordechai, and Shimon HaTzadik, Edom does not. It actively curses and blasphemes, persecuting the righteous and ultimately…well, we know how the story goes. But there's a glimmer of hope. The Midrash concludes by stating that Edom, unlike the other empires, will not draw another kingdom after it. Why is it called a pig [ḥazir]? It is because it will return [shemaḥazeret] the crown to its owner. The ultimate victory belongs to God, as (Obadiah 1:21) declares: "Saviors will ascend Mount Zion to judge the mountain of Esau, and the kingdom will be to the Lord."
So, what does all of this mean for us today? It's a reminder that history is not just a series of events, but a tapestry woven with meaning, symbolism, and divine purpose. It is a call to recognize the patterns of oppression and the enduring hope for redemption. It is an invitation to delve deeper into the texts, to wrestle with their complexities, and to discover the timeless wisdom they hold. The story of empires and animals becomes a story of faith, resilience, and the unwavering belief in a future where justice and righteousness will prevail. And maybe, just maybe, that's a story we all need to hear, again and again.
Rabbi Shmuel bar Naḥman said: All the prophets saw the kingdoms in their activities.13Their flourishing; alternatively, their oppression of Israel (Etz Yosef). That is what is written: “A river emerged from Eden to water [the garden, and from there it parted and became four streams]” (Genesis 2:10). Rabbi Tanḥuma, and some say Rabbi Menaḥama in the name of Rabbi Yehoshua ben Levi, said: The Holy One blessed be He is destined to give the nations of the world to drink from the cup of bewilderment in the future. “A river emerged from Eden,” the place from which justice [din] emerges. “From there it parted and became four streams” (Genesis 2:10), these are the four rivers. “The name of the first is Pishon” (Genesis 2:11), this is Babylon, as in: “Its horsemen will spread [ufashu]” (Habakkuk 1:8). “It is the one that encircles the entire land of Ḥavila” (Genesis 2:11), this is the wicked Nebuchadnezzar, who ascended and encircled the entire land of Israel, which longs [meyaḥelet] for the Holy One blessed be He. That is what is written: “Yearn [hoḥili] for God” (Psalms 42:6). “Where the gold is” (Genesis 2:11), these are words of Torah, as it is stated: “They are more desirable than gold, than much fine gold” (Psalms 19:11). “The gold of that land is good” (Psalms 19:12) – this teaches that there is no Torah like the Torah of the Land of Israel, and there is no wisdom like the wisdom of the Land of Israel. “There is the bdellium and the onyx stone” (Genesis 2:12) – Bible, Mishna, Talmud, halakhot, and agadda.14The different parts of Torah are compared to the varieties of jewels mentioned in the verse (Etz Yosef). “The name of the second river is Giḥon” (Genesis 2:13), this is Media, which produced the wicked Haman, who beat the dough like a serpent, as in, “on your belly you shall go” (Genesis 3:14).15He attacked Israel as mercilessly as one beats and kneads dough, until Israel was as lowly as the serpent, to whom God said, “on your belly you shall go.” “It is that which encircles the entire land of Kush” (Genesis 2:13), as it is stated: “From India to Kush” (Esther 1:1). “The name of the third river is Ḥidekel” (Genesis 2:14), this is Greece, which is sharp [ḥada] and swift [vekala] in their edicts against Israel, and says to them: ‘Write on the horn of the ox: Israel has no portion in the God of Israel.’ “It is that which flows east of Assyria” (Genesis 2:14) – Rav Huna said: All the kingdoms are called Assyria, as they bolstered [me’ashrin] themselves at Israel’s expense. Rabbi Yosei ben Rabbi Ḥanina said: All the kingdoms are called Egypt [Mitzrayim] because they would torment [metzeirim] Israel. “The fourth river is Euphrates [Perat]” (Genesis 2:14), this is Edom, which flourished [sheparat] and multiplied through the prayer of the elder.16Isaac’s blessing to Esau, who is considered the progenitor of Edom. Alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented Israel’s world. Alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented His son.17Israel is referred to as God’s son (see, e.g., Exodus 4:22). Alternatively, which flourished and multiplied and tormented His house.18The Temple. Rome, which destroyed the second Temple, is considered to have descended from Edom. Alternatively, Perat, after its end, as it is stated: “I have trodden a winepress alone” (Isaiah 63:3).19The chapter begins: “Who is this coming from Edom?” (Isaiah 63:1), and refers to the ultimate destruction of Edom. Abraham saw the kingdoms in their activities. “And behold, dread [eima], [a great darkness fell upon him]” (Genesis 15:12), this is Babylon, as in, “Nebuchadnezzar was filled with fury [ḥema]” (Daniel 3:19). “Darkness” (Genesis 15:12), this is Media, which darkened Israel with its edicts, as it is stated: “To destroy, to kill, and to eliminate” (Esther 3:13). “Great” (Genesis 15:12), this is Greece. Rav Naḥman said: This teaches that the Greek kingdom appointed one hundred and seventy-one governors and one hundred and twenty-seven commanders. The Rabbis say: Sixty of each. Rabbi Berekhya and Rabbi Ḥanin regarding that of the Rabbis: “Who guides you in the great and awesome wilderness: snake, fiery serpent, and scorpion” (Deuteronomy 8:15). “Snake,” this is Babylon; “fiery serpent,” this is Media; “scorpion,” this is Greece. Just as this scorpion spawns sixty at a time, so too, the kingdom of Greece appointed sixty of each. “Fell” (Genesis 15:12), this is Edom, after: “From the sound of their fall the earth quakes” (Jeremiah 49:21). Some say: “Dread,” this is Edom, as in: “Fearsome and terrifying [ve’aimtani]” (Daniel 7:7). “Darkness,” this is Greece. “Great [gedola],” this is Media, as in: “King Aḥashverosh promoted [gidel] [Haman]” (Esther 3:1). “Fell” (Genesis 15:12), this is Babylon, as in: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon” (Isaiah 21:9). Daniel saw the kingdoms in their activities. That is what is written: “I was seeing in my vision at night, and behold, the four winds of the heavens bursting forth to the great sea. Four great beasts arose from the sea” (Daniel 7:2–3); if you merit, from the sea; if not, from the forest. When the beast of the sea ascends from the sea it is timid. When [a beast] emerges from the forest, it is not timid. Likewise, “the boar from the forest [miyaar] gnaws at it” (Psalms 80:14). The ayin is suspended; if you merit, from the river [yeor], if not, from the forest.20The ayin of miyaar, from the forest, is written above the line, indicating that the word can at times be read without the ayin, such that it can be read miyar, which would have the same meaning as miyeor, from the river (Matnot Kehuna). When a beast ascends from the river it is timid. When [a beast] emerges from the forest, it is not timid. “Each different from the other” (Daniel 7:3); do not read “different [shanyan],” but rather, “they hate [sanyan] one another.” This teaches that every nation that rules the world hates Israel and subjugates them. “The first was like a lion” (Daniel 7:4), this is Babylon. Jeremiah saw it as a lion and saw it as an eagle, as it is written: “A lion has risen from its thicket” (Jeremiah 4:7), “behold, like the eagle it will ascend” (Jeremiah 49:22). They said to Daniel: ‘How did you see them?’ He said to them: ‘I saw the face of a lion and wings of an eagle.’ That is what is written: “The first was like a lion and had wings of an eagle. I was looking until its wings were torn off, and it was lifted from the ground” (Daniel 7:4). Rabbi Elazar and Rabbi Shmuel bar Naḥman, Rabbi Elazar says: The entire lion was afflicted, but its heart was not afflicted, as it is written: “And a man’s heart was given to it” (Daniel 7:4).21Nebuchadnezzar spent seven years as a beast in the forest (see Daniel chapter 4), during which he was made to suffer by the other beasts, yet he maintained some of the cognitive awareness of a human being. This exacerbated his suffering (Etz Yosef). Rabbi Shmuel bar Naḥman said: Even his heart was afflicted, as it is written: “Let its heart be altered from that of a man” (Daniel 4:13). “I was seeing” (Daniel 7:2). “Behold another, a second beast, resembling a bear [ledov]” (Daniel 7:5). Ledov is written,22The word dov, bear, is sometimes written with a vav. In this instance it is written without a vav such that it can be read dev, which is Aramaic for ze’ev, wolf. Thus, the midrash is saying that Media is compared to a wolf. this is Media, in accordance with the opinion of Rabbi Yoḥanan, as Rabbi Yoḥanan said: “Therefore, a lion from the forest smote them” (Jeremiah 5:6), this is Babylon. “A wolf of the deserts will plunder them” (Jeremiah 5:6), this is Media. “A leopard lies in wait by their cities (Jeremiah 5:6), this is Greece. “Everyone who emerges from them will be mauled” (Jeremiah 5:6), this is Edom. Why? It is “because their transgressions have magnified, their deviances have intensified” (Jeremiah 5:6). “I saw, and behold another, like a leopard” (Daniel 7:6), this is Greece, which was impudent in its edicts and would say to Israel: ‘Write on the horn of the ox that you have no portion in the World to Come.’ “After this I was seeing in the night visions, and behold, a fourth beast, fearsome, terrifying, and very [yatira] powerful” (Daniel 7:7), this is Edom. Daniel saw three of them on one night, and this one on another night. Why? Rabbi Yoḥanan said: Because it is equivalent to the three of them. Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish said: It is superior [yetera]. Rabbi Yoḥanan raised an objection to Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish: “You, son of man, prophesy and strike one hand against another, [and the sword will be doubled and tripled]” (Ezekiel 21:19). What does Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish do with this?23The verse is understood to mean that the triple-sword, signifying the first three nations, will be doubled in that it will be matched by the fourth. This implies that Edom is equal but not superior to the first three nations. “And...will be doubled.”24He interprets the verse to mean that Edom will be double the triple-sword of the other three nations. Moses saw the kingdoms in their activities. “The camel [hagamal]” (Leviticus 11:4), this is Babylon, as it is stated: “Thieving daughter of Babylon, happy is he who exacts retribution for what you did to us [gemulekh shegamalta lanu]” (Psalms 137:8). “And the hyrax” (Leviticus 11:5), this is Media. The Rabbis and Rabbi Yehuda bar Rabbi Simon, the Rabbis say: Just as the hyrax has characteristics of impurity and characteristics of purity,25It does not have split hooves, like other non-kosher animals, but it chews its cud, like kosher animals. so too, the kingdom of Media would install righteous and wicked [kings]. Rabbi Yehuda ben Rabbi Simon said: The last Darius was the son of Esther, pure from his mother and impure from his father. “And the hare [haarnevet]” (Leviticus 11:6), this is Greece; the mother of Ptolemy, her name was Arnevet.26According to Megilla 9b, Arnevet was his wife. “And the pig” (Leviticus 11:7), this is Persia. Moses grouped three of them in one verse,27Deuteronomy 14:7. and this in one verse.28In Leviticus (11:4–7), each of the four aforementioned animals are discussed in its own verse. When Moses reviews these laws for Israel, he includes the camel, hyrax, and hare in one verse (Deuteronomy 14:7) and the pig in a separate verse (Deuteronomy 14:8). Why? Rabbi Yoḥanan and Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish, Rabbi Yoḥanan said: Because it is equivalent to the three of them. Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish said: It is superior [yetera]. Rabbi Yoḥanan raised an objection to Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish: “You, son of man, prophesy and strike one hand against another, [and the sword will be doubled and tripled]” (Ezekiel 21:19). What does Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish do with this? “And...will be doubled.” Rabbi Pinḥas and Rabbi Ḥilkiya in the name of Rabbi Simon: Of all the prophets, only two publicized it:29They likened Edom to a pig. Asaf and Moses. Asaf said: “The pig from the forest gnaws at it” (Psalms 80:14). Moses said: “And the pig, because it has a split hoof” (Leviticus 11:7). Why is it likened to a pig? It is to say to you: Just as the pig, when it lies, it displays its hooves and says: ‘See that I am pure,’ so the kingdom of Edom engages in self-aggrandizement, and extorts and robs, while creating the impression that it is preparing a judicial platform.30It gives the impression that it outlaws and prosecutes these crimes, while it commits them itself. There was an incident involving a certain governor who would execute the thieves, adulterers, and sorcerers. He leaned over and said to the executioners: ‘I performed the three of them in one night.’ Another matter, “the camel” (Leviticus 11:4), this is Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:4), because it praises the Holy One blessed be He.31It pays lip service to the Holy One blessed be He. Rabbi Berekhya and Rabbi Ḥelbo, in the name of Rabbi Yishmael bar Naḥman: Every [type of praise] that David employed on its own, that wicked one included in one verse, as it is stated: “Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise, and exalt, and glorify the King of heaven, [for all His actions are truth, His ways are justice, and He is able to humble those who walk in arrogance]” (Daniel 4:34). “Praise” – “praise the Lord, Jerusalem” (Psalms 147:12). “Exalt” – “I exalt You, Lord” (Psalms 30:2). “And glorify” – “Bless the Lord, my soul. Lord my God, You are greatly exalted; You are clothed in splendor and glory” (Psalms 104:1). “For all His actions are truth” – “for Your kindness and Your truth” (Psalms 138:2). “His ways are justice” – “He will judge peoples with uprightness” (Psalms 96:10). “Those who walk in arrogance [begeva]” – “The Lord reigns, He is clothed in grandeur [geut]” (Psalms 93:1). “He is able to humble” – “I will sever all the horns of the wicked” (Psalms 75:11). “And the hyrax” (Leviticus 11:5), this is Media. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:5), because it praises the Holy One blessed be He, as it is stated: “So said Cyrus, king of Persia: [The Lord, God of the heavens, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth]” (Ezra 1:2). “The hare” (Leviticus 11:6), this is Greece. “Because it brings up the cud” (Leviticus 11:6), because it praises the Holy One blessed be He. Alexander of Macedonia, when he would see Shimon HaTzadik, he would say: ‘Blessed is the Lord of Shimon HaTzadik.’ “And the pig” (Leviticus 11:7), this is Edom. “But it does not chew its cud” (Leviticus 11:7), as it does not praise the Holy One blessed be He. It does not suffice with not praising, but it curses and blasphemes, and says: “Whom do I have in Heaven?” (Psalms 73:25). Another matter, “the camel,” this is Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it exalted Daniel, as it is stated: “Daniel was at the gate of the king” (Daniel 2:49). “And the hyrax,” this is Media. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it exalted Mordekhai, as it is stated: “Mordekhai was sitting at the gate of the king” (Esther 2:19). “The hare,” this is Greece. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it exalted the righteous. When Alexander would see Shimon HaTzadik, he would stand on his feet. The heretics said to him: ‘Do you stand before the Jews?’ He said to them: ‘When I go out to war, I see his image, and I am victorious.’ “And the pig,” this is Edom. “But it does not chew its cud,” as it does not exalt the righteous. It does not suffice with not exalting the righteous, but it kills them. That is what is written: “I was angry with My people, I desecrated My inheritance [and gave them into your hand; you did not show them any mercy; you set your yoke upon the elder very heavily]” (Isaiah 47:6). “My inheritance,” these are Rabbi Akiva and his colleagues. Another matter, “the camel,” this is Babylon. “Because it brings up the cud,” because it drew a kingdom after it.32The Babylonian Empire was replaced by the Persian-Median Empire. “And the hyrax,” this is Media. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it drew a kingdom after it.33The Medians were succeeded by the Greeks. “The hare,” this is Greece. “Because it brings up the cud,” as it drew a kingdom after it.34The Greeks were succeeded by the Romans. “And the pig,” this is Edom. “But it does not chew its cud,” because it does not draw a kingdom after it. Why is it called a pig [ḥazir]? It is because it wil return [shemaḥazeret] the crown to its owner. That is what is written: “Saviors will ascend Mount Zion to judge the mountain of Esau, and the kingdom will be to the Lord” (Obadiah 1:21).
